Section 2.1 Physical development theories

1. Key aspects of physical development

a. Growth

Growth refers to the quantitative increase in size, height, weight, or volume of an individual or part of the body over time. It is a biological process that can be measured objectively and is most noticeable during childhood and adolescence. It is more rapid during infancy and adolescence and slows in middle childhood.

b. Motor Skill Development

•    Gross motor skills: involve large muscles (e.g., walking, running, jumping).

•    Fine motor skills: involve small muscles (e.g., grasping, writing, buttoning).

•    Development follows predictable patterns:

− Cephalocaudal: growth from head to toe.

− Proximodistal: growth from the center outward to extremities.

c. Brain and Nervous System Maturation

Maturation of the brain and nervous system refers to the gradual and orderly development of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves that control physical and cognitive functions (Paus, 2022). This process starts before birth and continues into early adulthood, supporting the development of motor skills, emotional regulation, learning, and behavior. The nervous system begins forming in the embryonic stage (about 3 weeks after conception). By birth, the baby has most of the neurons they will ever have, but many are not yet connected.

Authors such as Benes, Turtle, Khan, and Farol (1994) explain that myelination which begins before birth continues into the early 20s, especially in the brain’s frontal lobes (responsible for decision-making and planning). Myelin is a fatty substance that covers nerve fibers, helping messages travel quickly. The brain grows rapidly in the first few years of life by age 5, it’s about 95% of adult size (Giedd,1999). Adolescence brings another wave of growth and reorganization, especially in areas involved in impulse control and judgment.

d. Puberty and Hormonal Changes

Puberty is the period of rapid physical, hormonal, and emotional changes during which a child’s body matures into an adult body capable of reproduction. It usually occurs between the ages of 8–13 for girls and 9–14 for boys, but the timing can vary (Rogol, Roemmich, & Clark, 2002). Puberty is triggered by the activation of the endocrine system, particularly the hypothalamic pituitary gonadal (HPG) axis. The hypothalamus signals the pituitary gland to release LH (Luteinizing hormone) and FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone). These hormones stimulate the gonads (ovaries in girls, testes in boys) to produce sex hormones: (1) estrogen in girls and (2) testosterone in boys. These hormones drive the physical and reproductive changes of puberty (Abreu, & Kaiser, 2016).

2. Major theories related to physical development

a. Gesell’s Maturational Theory

Arnold Gesell’s maturational theory is a significant framework in the field of child development. Understanding this theory is crucial for classroom teachers as it provides valuable insights into the natural progression of children’s growth and development. In this guide, we will explore Gesell’s maturational Theory, its core principles, stages, and practical implications for educators, with a focus on creating developmentally appropriate and effective teaching strategies.

Gesell developed the maturation theory in early 20^th century. This theory emphasised the idea that a child’s development is guided by a predetermined biological timetable, and each child follows a unique and predictable sequence of development. He proposed that the pace and pattern of development are primarily determined by an individual’s biological maturation process. He identified various stages, with each stage of development characterised by specific milestones and behaviours that are typical for children at that age (Riley, 1991).

i.      Stage Based Development

•    Infancy (0-2 years): During this stage, children develop basic motor skills, sensory awareness, and the ability to form simple attachments.

•    Earl childhood (2-6 years): This stage is marked by rapid language development, as well as the development of fine and gross motor skills.

•    Middle childhood (6-12 years): children in this stage continue to develop cognitive and social skills, such as logical thinking and the ability to form friendships.

•    Adolescence (12-18 years): This stage is characterised by the development of abstract thinking, identity formation and the transition into adulthood.

ii. Individual Variation

Gesell acknowledges that while children generally follow a maturational timetable, individual variations in the rate of development exist. He stressed the importance of recognizing and respecting these differences.

iii. Educational Implications for Gesell’s Theory of Human Development

•    Alignment of the curriculum: Design and implement the curriculum and teaching strategies that align with the specific developmental stage of your students.

•    Respect individual differences: Be mindful of the unique maturational rates and needs of each student and tailor your instruction accordingly.

•    Safe and supportive spaces: Create a classroom environment that is physically and emotionally safe, allowing students to explore and learn at their own pace.

•    Hands-on learning: Utilise hands-on activities and play based learning to support the development of motor skills and sensory awareness, particularly in early childhood.

•    Observational assessments: use systematic observations to assess students’ developmental progress and identify areas where additional support may be needed.

•    Formative assessment: Incorporate formative assessments that are sensitive to individual maturational differences, rather than relying solely on standardized measures.

•    Understand the role of play in child development and utilize it as a valuable teaching tool.

•    Teachers should respond with patience and developmentally appropriate strategies, understanding that certain behaviors (e.g., short attention spans) are part of the child’s natural growth.

b. Dynamic Systems Theory

The second theory of physical development which is explained in this module is called dynamic systems theory.

       i.       Understanding Dynamic System Theory

Dynamic systems theory is a theory of human development that emphasizes the complex, non-linear, and constantly changing nature of development, especially motor and cognitive development in infants and children.

Developed by Esther Thelen, a developmental psychologist, Dynamic Systems Theory (DST) argues that development is not a result of preprogrammed instructions (like in maturational theories) or only from external stimuli (as in behaviorism) but rather emerges from the interaction of multiple systems (biological, environmental, cognitive, emotional, and social) working together over time.

It is based on the ideas that development arises spontaneously from the interaction of components, without the need for a central controller (like a “program” in the brain). Children create new movement patterns through trial and error, adapting to their bodies and environment. Therefore, no single factor drives development. Instead, change occurs due to many interacting factors (e.g., neural growth, muscle strength, motivation, social input) and development is not linear. The progress may include regressions and spurts.

As explained by Thelen, there exist attractors which are defined as stable patterns of behavior or movement (like walking or reaching). As the child explores different movements, some patterns become more stable or “attractive” due to efficiency or usefulness. For her, skills are not rigidly programmed. They are assembled in the moment from many flexible components, depending on the context and goals. She posited that the body and its interactions with the environment play a central role in shaping learning and development and that cognition is grounded in action.

ii. Educational Implications of Dynamic System Theory

•    Since development is variable and non-linear, educators should recognize individual learning paths rather than expect uniform progress.

•    Children learn best when actively engaged, moving, and interacting with their environment.

•    Teachers should observe how students adapt to challenges and support the dynamic processes of exploration and adaptation.

•    Providing a safe and enriched environment allows learners to explore and self-organize new skills and knowledge.